Archive for July 8th, 2005
Sulfur-Containing Supplements
Do you get enough sulfur from the diet you eat? Many dietitians will say that people obtain adequate sulfur as long as they eat methionine-rich meat. But other foods also provide large amounts of sulfur, including egg yolks, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussel sprouts, watercress, radish, leek, onion, and of course garlic. Unfortunately, many people dislike these foods or, as in the case of eggs, avoid them.
Some of the most popular-and beneficial-dietary supplements on the market are rich sources of sulfur. A diverse group of sulfur-containing molecules in the diet provides a biochemical “toolbox” that the body can draw on. Indeed, Lawrence says research has demonstrated that supplemental sulfur is incorporated into amino acids.
Among the popular sulfur-containing supplements are: alpha-lipoic acid, chondroitin and glucosamine sulfate, garlic, glutathione, methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), N-acetylcysteine, and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe). It’s likely that these supplement are beneficial because they donate a variety of biologically active sulfur compounds to a multitude of body processes.
The value of any dietary supplement is often determined by its benefit, says Hugh Riordan, M.D., who heads The Bright Spot for Health Clinic in Wichita, Kansas. “If someone benefits after taking a supplement, they obviously had a problem that the supplement corrected.”
These are some of the most popular sulfur-containing supplements:
Alpha-lipoic acid. A vitamin-like substance found in foods (beef and spinach) and produced by the body, alpha-lipoic acid plays key roles in energy production. It is part of a process that breaks down glucose (blood sugar) and burns it for energy. Studies have found that alpha-lipoic acid can lower and stabilize glucose levels in diabetics by as much as 30 percent. , It also reverses nerve pain and numbness in diabetes. Lester Packer, Ph.D., of the University of California, Berkeley, has reported that alpha-lipoic acid can reenergize other important antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E and glutathione. Packer believes, based on animal studies, that alpha-lipoic acid holds tremendous potential in helping stroke victims recover. Dosage: 50-300 mg daily.
Chondroitin and glucosamine sulfate. Both chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine sulfate help form cartilage tissue, particularly in the pads that cushion joints. Thin or absent joint cartilage results in osteoarthritis, in which bones grind against each other. Medical studies support both chondroitin and glucosamine sulfate supplements. In an analysis of 13 studies, researchers at Case Western University School of Medicine reported that supplements of each resulted in a 40 percent improvement in osteoarthritic symptoms. Some research has also found that chondroitin sulfate works better than analgesic drugs at relieving pain. In a recent U.S. Navy study, researchers found that a combination of chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine sulfate, and vitamin C reduced osteoarthritic symptoms by 26 to 43 percent (depending on the specific symptom). Dosage: glucosamine, 1,500 mg, and chondroitin, 1,200 mg daily.
Garlic. Sitting on the shelf, garlic has little biological activity. But dicing and cooking it triggers a cascade of chemical reactions (starting with oxidation), that lead to more than 100 sulfur-rich chemical compounds, including some sulfur-containing amino acids. Garlic boosts antioxidant levels in the body, and virtually every form of the food has some health benefits. Studies have found that garlic supplements can lower cholesterol levels in people. John Milner, Ph.D., of Pennsylvania State University, University Park, and other researchers have reported that garlic can block the action of cancer-causing compounds and, in laboratory animals, delay the growth of some cancers. Dosage: add garlic liberally to food, or take 500-2,000 mg daily in supplemental form.
Glutathione. Described by chemists as a tripeptide (composed of cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid), glutathione is the most powerful antioxidant made by the human body. Not surprisingly, low blood levels of glutathione are associated with heart disease, cancer, and other diseases. In addition, glutathione also helps the liver break down toxic chemicals, whether they are absorbed from the environment or produced by the body. Researchers recently reported that diets high in glutathione protected against lung cancer. Good dietary sources of glutathione include beef, potatoes, winter squash, oranges, and tomatoes. More than 90 percent of the nonprotein-bound sulfur in cells is found in glutathione. Dosage: 75-150 mg daily.
Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM). Although scientific research on MSM is limited, 55,000 studies have been published on the closely related dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Stanley Jacob, M.D., of Oregon health Sciences University, Portland, a pioneer in researching both MSM, has found MSM very effective in reducing muscle and joint pain, interstitial cystitis (a type of very painful bladder inflammation). According to Jacob, MSM also eases symptoms of scleroderma, a chronic degenerative disease that scars skin, joints, and connective tissue. By weight, MSM is 34 percent sulfur. Dosage: 1,000-2,000 mg daily.
N-acetylcysteine. Virtually every hospital emergency room stocks N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as an antidote for acetaminophen (Tylenol) poisoning. Acetaminophen depresses glutathione production in the liver, whereas NAC restores it. In a study of 262 elderly people, supplements of 1,2000 mg of NAC daily reduced the occurrence of flu symptoms by two-thirds. Researchers at Stanford University have reported that high dosages of NAC significantly extend the life expectancy of AIDS patients. Preliminary research also suggests that it may be helpful in preventing cancer. , NAC is completely safe, unlike pure cysteine, which can damage brain cells. Dosage: 500-2,000 mg daily.
S-adenosyl-L-methionine. Better known as SAMe (pronounced “sammy”), this nutrient plays a central role in a process biochemists call methylation. By donating “methyl groups,” containing carbon and hydrogen, to 40 major chemical reactions, SAMe promotes the building of new cells and essential processes in existing cells. Because of these fundamental roles in health, SAMe has been shown helpful in treating depression, controlling inflammation and pain, and speeding healing. Dosage: 200-400 mg daily.
Although each of these supplements is rich in sulfur, each also provides health benefits for other reasons as well. For example, alpha-lipoic acid is a powerful antioxidant. NAC and glutathione enhance immune function. And glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfur help rebuild damaged joints.
You certainly don’t need to take all of these. But keep the sulfur solution in mind-you can’t go wrong.
July 8th, 2005
The dearth of research on nutritional sulfur is puzzling. Because it is an element, the body cannot make it and, instead, must obtain sulfur from food.
“Here is an essential nutrient that no one sees as being that,” says Ronald M. Lawrence, M.D., Ph.D., coauthor of The Miracle of MSM: The Natural Solution for Pain (G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1999). “We don’t learn anything about sulfur in medical school. Sulfur has been the most understudied and overlooked nutrient.”
Sulfur is found in every living cell. It’s part of the molecules that form the amino acids (protein building blocks) methionine, cysteine, and taurine, which are essential for health. It’s a constituent of vitamin B1 and biotin, the antioxidant glutathione, the anticoagulant heparin, and coenzyme A, which drives energy production in cells. Sulfur is an integral part of the biological cement that forms skin, hair, nails, and the cartilage that shapes your nose and pads your joints.
Yet, says Lawrence, there is no officially recognized “sulfur-deficiency syndrome.” That’s a problem other nutrients, such as vitamin E and selenium, had to suffer with for years-before they were recognized as essential for health, he adds.
Long Used as a Medicine
The medicinal use of sulfur goes back thousands of years to the Trojan Wars, when wounded solders healed in the sulfur Baths of Agamemnon. Sulfur baths are still popular for treating joint and other diseases around the world. Similarly, sulfur-rich garlic has been used for several millennia to prevent and treat diseases. It contains powerful antibacterial substances, which may explain the garlic’s extensive use as a folk medicine.
Sulfur is also a common ingredient in homeopathic remedies, developed in the 19th century and still popular today as over-the-counter remedies. In the 1920s, “colloidal sulfur” was used to treat arthritics. Now, researchers understand that sulfur forms part of the matrix of bone joints in the form of chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine sulfate.
Before the advent of antibiotics in the 1940s, sulfur-containing drugs-sulfa drugs-were commonly used to treat infectious diseases. Sulfur has powerful antibacterial properties. Many of sulfa drugs are still prescribed by physicians, and sulfur is a component of penicillin-class antibiotics and many other medicines.
Next: Sulfur-Containing Supplements
July 8th, 2005
Give about 2 to 3 cups of milk daily with a variety of other foods from the food groups listed below.
Most health authorities recommend that a baby should be at least 1 year old before regular whole milk is given. Until your baby is a year old, breast milk or iron-fortified formula is the most appropriate milk for your baby.
The chart below gives the suggested daily intake of foods your baby should be eating at this time.
Your baby doesn’t have to eat something from every food group at every meal. He may eat well at one meal, not so well at the next, and refuse the third. One hearty meal a day plus four foods from the above food groups are about average at this age. Forcing your baby to eat can work in reverse and make him refuse any food. Or, he may continue to eat just to get your approval.
Offering food to your baby when he is upset may quiet him for a few moments, but it also teaches him to use food as a solution to problems. Find the cause of the problem and solve it without using food as the pacifier.
| Food |
Suggested Daily Intake |
Notes |
Whole Milk and Milk Products: 16-24 ounces. Offer cheese, yogurt, and cottage cheese. Your baby probably will not need more now that he’s eating a variety of foods.
Breads and Cereals: 6-12 tablespoons, 1 slice bread Whole grains such as whole wheat toast, rice, and pasta may be offered.
Vegetables: 6-8 tablespoons. Serve plain cooked vegetables, mashed or finely chopped.
Fruits: 6-8 tablespoons. Peel and mash bananas, peaches, and pears or cook and mash apples.
Juice: 4-6 ounces. Use juices high in vitamin C (orange or grapefruit). Do not use fruit drinks or sweetened beverages like sodas.
Meats and Other Protein Foods: 2 tablespoons. Serve finely chopped meats, chicken, and fish, mashed cooked dry beans, whole egg if cooked well done.
July 8th, 2005
A Baby Doesn’t Have to Be Fat to Be Healthy
If you have an active baby, you may notice a slowing down of weight gain. That’s because your baby is using more calories for his constant activity. The fact that your baby may not be gaining as much weight as before doesn’t mean that he is not healthy. A fat baby is not necessarily a healthy baby. At this age, babies should be developing muscle tissue, not fat.
Worrying about what your baby eats or does not eat only makes both of you nervous. Don’t expect your baby to clean his plate or to eat just one more mouthful. Trust him to be the best judge of how much to eat. If, over a period of a few days he gets a good variety of foods, his nutritional intake will be adequate.
As your baby moves around to explore his world, he will discover a new independence. He may be eager to try out this new independence by insisting on feeding himself. Or he may be a little scared by his new abilities and may cling to you at mealtimes. He may even refuse to hold his cup or spoon and demand to be fed.
Whether your baby is a clinger or a self-feeder, be calm and patient. It will pay off in fewer feeding problems both now and later.
Your baby still should be drinking breast milk or 24 ounces of iron-fortified formula each day.
July 8th, 2005
Does your baby hold most foods while eating, drink from a cup (with a little help), or hold and lick the spoon after it is dipped in food? These are his first steps in learning to eat by himself. You can help him practice by giving him finger foods such as pieces of soft cheese, bits of soft toast, graham crackers, cooked vegetable strips or slices, or dry, ready-to-eat cereal squares or rounds. These foods will easily break up or dissolve in his mouth. Try not to feed your baby french fries or other salty, fried foods.
Praise your baby while he is feeding himself, even if he is very messy. If the mess really bothers you, spread some newspapers under his chair to catch any food that drops.
About Weaning
Some mothers decide to wean their babies from the breast or bottle about now. Others wait until later on. When you decide to wean your baby, do so gradually over a period of several weeks. Your baby still needs to drink either breast milk or 24 ounces of iron-fortified formula each day. During the weaning period, be sure to give your baby some extra hugs and kisses.
No Seasonings or Small, Hard Foods
Although you may find unseasoned foods bland or tasteless, your baby does not. By now your little one can eat most of the things you cook for the rest of the family. Just take out your baby’s food before you add salt or other seasonings for them.
Be careful not to give your baby small, hard pieces of food he could choke on, such as grapes, nuts, seeds, pieces of raw vegetables, popcorn, or round slices of hot dog. Hot dogs are not good for babies for another reason—they are not nutritious, because they contain many additives and lots of fat. However, if you decide to serve hot dogs, for safety cut them in narrow, lengthwise strips then cut the strips crosswise into small pieces before handing them to your baby. Try “hot dogs” made from turkey or soy as healthier choices.
July 8th, 2005
Basic Recipes for Pureed Baby Foods
These recipes are in one- or two- serving sizes. They may be doubled or tripled if you store food in a freezer that maintains a constant temperature of about 0 degrees Fahrenheit. Date and label containers. Keep frozen baby foods no longer than one month.
Fresh Fruit
Do not add sugar.
3/4 cup ripe fruit (uncooked peaches, nectarines, pears, apricots, apples).
1 teaspoon unsweetened fruit juice.
1 teaspoon lemon-flavored water (1 teaspoon lemon juice to 1 cup water to prevent darkening).
Remove skin and seeds. Puree ingredients in a baby-food mill or blender until smooth. Serve or freeze.
Cooked or Home-Canned Fruits
Use apples, pears, peaches, nectarines, apricots (not dried), or prunes.
1/2 cup freshly cooked or home-canned fruit, or cooked dried prunes (all without sugar).
2 to 4 teaspoons unsweetened fruit juice, water, or formula.
Remove skin (except apricot and prune skins) and seeds. Press through sieve, or place ingredients in baby-food mill or blender. Puree until smooth. Serve or freeze.
Hint: Apples such as Jonathans and Winesaps are better for cooking than Delicious varieties.
Vegetables
Do not add salt, sugar, or fat.
1/2 cup cooked fresh, frozen or canned vegetables without salt (sweet or white potatoes, green beans, peas, carrots, winter squash).
2 to 4 tablespoons cooking liquid, formula, or water.
Cook fresh vegetables or use frozen or home-canned vegetables without salt or seasonings, reading ingredients on label to be sure they don’t contain them.
Press vegetable chunks through sieve or baby-food mill. Thin with cooking liquid or formula to eating consistency or place cooked vegetable and liquid in blender; puree until smooth. Serve or freeze.
Note: After the vegetables have been fed individually several times, good combinations to try include potatoes and carrots, potatoes and green beans, and carrots and peas.
July 8th, 2005
Your baby probably is eager to learn how to feed herself. She may be messy at first, but she’ll improve with practice.
Encourage her to feed herself. Use finger foods such as crackers and small pieces of bread or toast. Let your 6-month-old help you handle the spoon. Sit behind her so she can hold the spoon or your hands and learn movements to use later when she feeds herself.
Also let your baby try drinking small amounts of iron-fortified formula or water from a cup. Offer it each time you feed solid foods. As she becomes skillful at drinking, increase the amount. This is the most natural and comfortable way for baby to gradually wean herself from the bottle.
Your baby will be messy when she is first learning to feed herself. Try not to become overly concerned about neatness at this time. Be prepared with a bib or apron to protect her clothing. A large piece of plastic or newspaper under your baby’s chair will make cleanup easier. Your baby will learn about food and eating from the social setting during meals. Your attitude and acceptance of nutritious foods will help your baby develop a healthy relationship with food.
Feeding Reminders
Candy, sugar, pre-sweetened cereals, sweet desserts (including baby desserts), fruit-flavored drinks, and soda pop have little food value. These sweet foods should not be fed to your baby; they spoil her appetite for more nourishing foods. They also are harmful to her teeth.
Check the expiration date before purchasing any baby food. Many food products have a date stamped on them. A Use By date is the last date recommended for the use of the food while at peak quality. After that date, the quality begins to go down. A Best If Used By or Before date is for best product quality. It is not related to safety. Sometimes the term Freshness is used to mean the same thing.
Next: Basic Recipes for your Baby
July 8th, 2005
After four to six months, your baby will be ready to eat solid foods in addition to breast milk or iron-fortified formula.
When to Feed
Increasing numbers of doctors recommend that babies not be given solid food until they are at least 4 months of age, and they prefer that parents wait until 5 or 6 months to begin feeding cereals and other solid foods. The reason: before 4 months, babies do not have full mouth and tongue control and usually push solids out with their tongues. Therefore, semi-liquid, mushy foods should not be given to your baby before she can sit up with support or has some head and neck control. Also, feeding solids too early in life may lead to overeating and obesity. Check with your healthcare provider before beginning solid foods.
What to Feed
After 4 to 6 months, your baby will be ready for other foods in addition to breast milk or iron-fortified formula. Usually an iron-fortified infant cereal is first. Choose a single-ingredient infant cereal such as rice, oatmeal, or barley.
How to Feed
Put a teaspoon of infant cereal in a dish (not in the bottle) and mix it with iron-fortified formula or breast milk. Don’t add sugar, salt, butter, or any seasonings.
For the first few weeks, offer the cereal once or twice a day after breast or bottle feeding. Use a baby-size spoon to feed your baby. Give her just a small taste at first. If she seems interested, give her a few more tastes with the spoon. If she doesn’t like it or pushes the spoon away, wait a few days and then try again. Don’t force your baby to eat. She will accept solids when she is ready.
Try only one new food at a time. For example, if you start with a couple of teaspoons of infant rice cereal, continue for a week before introducing infant oatmeal or infant barley.
The first feedings probably will be messy. Your baby has been only sucking up to now, but she soon will learn how to swallow solids. With a little patience, you can help your baby learn to eat and like different foods. Try to make mealtime pleasant for both of you.
Sometimes a new food can cause diarrhea, a skin rash, or even a runny nose. If you think your baby has an allergy problem, check with your healthcare provider.
July 8th, 2005
All your baby’s food and nutrition needs for the next four months can be met with breast milk or iron-fortified formula.
By now, your baby probably has a fairly regular feeding pattern. She may get hungry anywhere from every two to every four hours.
Don’t worry if your baby is a slow drinker or drinks less than you think she needs. If she doesn’t want that last ounce of milk, don’t force her. Overfeeding your baby can make her fat. An overweight baby is not neces-sarily a healthy baby. Overeating will only cause problems for your baby in later life.
Hold your baby close in the bend of your elbow while feeding. Remember that food and loving are both important. This is a time for getting to know each other—a time for snuggling, cuddling, and talking.
Hiccups are not unusual, especially if your baby is bottle fed. They may be caused by air bubbles your baby gets from sucking hard on the bottle. Air bubbles can be painful. A small bottle of warm water may help. Burping your baby at least once during a feeding and then again when the feeding is finished also helps.
If you breastfeed, you now need about 500 extra calories a day. For example, two additional glasses of milk and a peanut butter sandwich gives you more than enough extra calories. Remember to drink plenty of liquids and to choose foods that are good sources of nutrients.
July 8th, 2005
Most babies set up their own fairly regular feeding times. Some babies may like to eat every four hours, others are ready to eat every three hours, and some prefer eating more often than that. Newborn babies drink only breast milk and water or iron-fortified formula and water.
Some babies like to sleep for longer periods during the day than at night. If your baby is a lengthy day time sleeper and stays awake most of the night, you can reverse this pattern. Try waking him up for feeding instead of letting him sleep for long periods during the day.
You can get a good idea of your baby’s feeding pattern by noting the times when he seems to be hungry. You also will learn to recognize the hunger cry. Your baby may not be hungry every time he is fussy. He may need burping, a diaper change, or a drink of water—or he may just want to be held.
Breastfeeding
Relax. Being tense and uptight affects the natural flow of milk. You can sit in a chair or lie down, whichever is more comfortable for you. Positioning yourself with pillows will help. Your baby’s nursing helps your milk flow. Don’t rush. Take your time. This is a learning experience for both of you.
During the first few days, your nipples may be slightly tender from your baby’s sucking. As you learn to relax and your milk flows freely, the soreness will disappear. If your breasts remain sore, it may be that they are extra full of milk. Nursing your baby long enough and often enough to empty both breasts helps. Or you may have too much milk so that your breasts leak a little. If this happens, tuck a clean handkerchief or a breast pad in your bra. You also may apply a warm washcloth to the breast and then gently squeeze some milk from it to relieve the pressure.
Your initial breast milk is yellow-colored and called colostrum. It provides nutrients to the baby and helps prevent some infections and allergies. After a few days, your breast milk changes to a white color.
Remind yourself that the time you spend relaxing and enjoying your new baby is important for both of you. Continue eating a healthy diet and drinking six to eight glasses of liquid per day.
If you are interested in breast-feeding, you can get more information from your healthcare provider or WIC nutritionist.
Bottle Feeding
If you decide to bottle feed your baby, use an iron-fortified formula. Formulas usually are made from cow’s milk or other special products to meet the needs of a growing baby. There are three different types of formula:
Powdered Formula—mix 1 scoop (provided) of formula with 2 ounces of water.
Concentrated Formula—mix 13 ounces of concentrated formula with 13
ounces of water.
Ready-to-Feed Formula—simply open the can and pour it into bottles.
Whichever formula you use, follow instructions carefully. Make sure that bottles and nipples are washed and clean. Your healthcare provider or WIC nutritionist can review preparation and sterilization with you. Never microwave your baby’s bottle.
When you bottle feed your baby, keep the nipple full of formula so he doesn’t swallow air. Hold your baby close with his head up. Don’t leave your baby alone with the bottle propped up, and don’t put him to bed with a bottle. Burp the newborn after every 2 ounces.
Water
Ask your health care provider when you may offer your baby a bottle of water. Don’t add sugar to the water unless prescribed by your doctor. Don’t give flavored drinks, soda pop, or even fruit juice to a newborn. Some fruit juices, such as apple juice, provide empty calories without added nutrition.
July 8th, 2005
Molybdenum is a cofactor of aldehyde oxidases which are involved in purine and pyrimidine detoxification. Xanthine oxidase is responsible for metabolism of uric acid. Molybdenum may also have a role in stabilizing the unoccupied glucocorticoid receptor.
Deficiencies
No cases of human molybdenum Deficiency have been reported.
Toxicity
No cases of human molybdenum Toxicity have been reported.
The upper limit of safety for molybdenum established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine is approximately 2,000 mcg daily for adults.
Dietary Sources
Milk, dried beans, peas, nuts and seeds, eggs, liver tomatoes, carrots and meats are good sources of molybdenum.
July 8th, 2005
Copper (Cu) is a trace element that is essential for most animals, including humans. The influence of copper upon human health is due to the fact it is part of enzymes, which are proteins that help biochemical reactions occur in every cell. Copper is involved in the absorption, storage and metabolism of iron. The symptoms of a copper deficiency are similar to iron deficiency anemia. Copper may be absorbed by both the stomach and small intestinal mucosa, with most absorbed by the small intestine. Copper is found in the blood bound to proteins.
Copper is utilized by most cells as a component of enzymes involved in energy production (cytochrome oxidase) and in the protection of cells from free radical damage (superoxide dismutase). Copper is also involved with an enzyme that strengthens connective tissue (lysyl oxidase) and in brain neurotransmitters (dopamine hydroxylase and peptidyl alpha amidating monoxygenase). One of the proteins, ceruloplasmin, transports copper as well as helps convert iron to a form that can be transported to other tissues. The average level of copper stored in the body is from 50 to 120 mg, with most of this in the liver. Excess dietary copper can also lead to high copper levels in the kidney. However, under normal situations, not much copper is excreted via the urine. Most copper is excreted via bile that is released into the gastrointestinal tract, with minimal copper reabsorbed by intestinal cells. The uptake of copper and elimination through the bile allows copper to be conserved and tightly regulated.
Deficiencies: Animals that are fed diets deficient in copper often exhibit anemia, cardiac abnormalities such as blood vessel and heart rupture, abnormal EKG’s and have elevated levels of serum cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose. A lifetime of marginal diet copper in humans is thought to lead to heart disease. Copper deficiency has been observed in premature infants and infants suffering from malnutrition. Overt symptoms in adults are rare, but may occur with long term shortage or, possibly, in those who consume zinc supplements for a period of time.
Copper Diet recommendations: The estimated safe and adequate intake for copper is 1.5 - 3.0 mg/day. Many survey studies show that Americans consume about 1.0 mg or less of copper per day. Copper is found in foods such as nuts [0.2 to 0.5 mg/28 g (1 Tbsp.)], shellfish (1.0 to 3.7 mg/serving), organ meats (3.8 mg/serving of beef liver) and legumes (0.2 mg/serving). Grains, grain products and chocolate have appreciable levels of copper. While these food items are good to excellent sources of copper, the absolute amount of copper absorbed may be influenced by other dietary components.
Copper absorption may be decreased by excess dietary iron or zinc. Conversely, too much copper may cause an iron deficiency. Vitamin C supplementation results in decreased copper status. In rats, large doses of vitamin C can lead to copper deficiency. Other dietary components have an influence upon copper status, but not necessarily absorption. Feeding rats either sucrose or fructose, as opposed to glucose or cornstarch, decreases copper status and exacerbates the signs of copper deficiency.
Toxicity: Cases of copper toxicity are rare but may occur. Excess copper consumption may lead to liver damage. Intake of supplements exceeding 3 mg copper/day for a protracted period of time may be cause for concern. Doses of 10 mg/day over several weeks may lead to toxic symptoms, such as weakness and nausea.
Genetic Conditions relating to copper: There are two well known genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism. Menkes’ kinky-hair disease is a problem with copper transport or absorption. Wilson’s disease is characterized by increased liver copper content, leading to severe hepatic damage, followed by increased brain copper levels and neurological problems. Menkes’ disease results in pathology resembling copper-deficiency, as opposed to the pathology of Wilson’s disease, which resembles copper-toxicity. The Menkes’ gene codes for a P-type ATPase that has a mutation that prevents copper absorption in the intestine.
July 8th, 2005
Physiological Functions
Phosphorous is a component of bone, teeth, nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP, and a number of enzymes and coenzymes. Phosphorylation of glucose is a requirement for its metabolism. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of cellular compounds is a mechanism for regulating enzyme activity and for transport and storage of cell compounds. Approximately 85% of the total body phosphate pool is found in bone as hydroxyapatite. The remaining amount of phosphate is distributed in blood and soft tissues. In the blood, phosphate is part of the monobasic-dibasic buffer system.
Factors Affecting Availability
Phosphorus is well absorbed by the intestines and does not change with changing needs. The total body phosphorus pool is regulated by renal excretion.
Beans, peas, cereals and nuts contain phytate or inositol phosphate which is resistant to digestion. However, phytase from yeast added during leavening of breads, can release some phosphate from phytate. Intestinal microflora can also release phosphate from phytic acid in the colon. Phytase activity from endogenous and exogenous sources can increase the bioavailability of phosphate from plant sources by approximately 50%.
Deficiency
Phosphorus Deficiency caused by inadequate dietary intake does not occur. However, chronic and excessive use of anticonvulsants, calcium carbonate supplements, or aluminum hydroxide-containing antacids can decrease phosphate absorption. Hypophosphatemia can also develop in individuals with gastrointestinal malabsorption, diabetes mellitus, hyperparathyroidism, renal dysfunction, or alcoholism whether or not it is accompanied by decompensated liver disease. Hypophosphatemia results in bone loss, weakness, and poor appetite.
Toxicity
Elevated blood phosphorous levels are usually secondary to inadequate renal filtration due to acute or chronic renal failure.
Imbalances in phosphate intake may contribute to negative calcium balance when inadequate calcium intake is accompanied by excessive intake of phosphorous. Elevations in serum phosphate following a meal will inhibit activation of vitamin D which is necessary for stimulation of intestinal calcium absorption. In response to diminished levels of calcitriol, additional amounts of parathyroid hormone are secreted to compensate for interference with vitamin D activation by elevated serum phosphate. This condition is described as a nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism which contributes to increased rates of bone turnover and eventually to a reduction of bone mass and density.
The upper intake levels of phosphorous intake for both men and women are 4,000 mg daily until age 70 after which the daily maximum is reduced to 3,000 mg.
The upper limit of safety for phosphorus established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine is 3-4 grams daily for adults.
Phosphorus Dietary Sources
Good Dietary Sources of phosphorous are typically also rich in protein. These foods are mainly milk, meat, nuts, legumes, and grains.
July 8th, 2005
Physiological Functions
The only function of iodine involves the synthesis of thyroid hormone. Approximately 60% of the total body pool of iodine is stored in the thyroid gland. The remainder is found in the blood, ovary, and muscle. Thyroid hormone is necessary for regulation of human growth and development.
Factors Affecting Availability
Iodine is absorbed intestinally from dietary sources or dermally from topical iodine applications or from iodine vapors produced as byproducts of industrial activity. Iodine vapor is also emitted from cleansing agents used commercially in sterilization processes and from fossil fuel combustion such as occurs in automobile engines. Currently, the most common source of exposure to iodine is from automobile exhaust. In the 1970’s, the amount of iodine measured in the environment reached levels that were a cause for concern prompting the dairy industry to discontinue use of iodine-containing agents in sterilization of milking equipment to reduce the iodine content of milk.
Iodine Deficiency
Iodine deficiency was frequently observed in landlocked regions of the US at the beginning of the 20th century necessitating iodine fortification of salt, an inexpensive and widely used seasoning. The development of iodine deficiency is no longer a problem, since landlocked regions receive produce grown in coastal areas where soil is rich in iodine. Signs of iodine deficiency include hypothyroidism, lethargy, and weight gain. The clinical presentation of iodine deficiency is goiter. Goiter can also develop from high intakes of goitrogens, naturally occurring substances in foods which decrease iodine availability or interfere with its tissue utilization. Dietary sources of goitrogens include cabbage, turnips, rapeseed oil (canola oil), peanuts, cassava, and soybeans. Goitrogens are inactivated by heating, roasting or cooking.
Cretinism is a condition which develops in the fetus from iodine deficiency during pregnancy. This condition is characterized by mental retardation and dwarfism. Neonates are routinely screened for adequate thyroid hormone levels in developed countries and is being adopted in developing countries.
Toxicity
Chronic excessive intakes of iodine may compromise thyroid function and also contribute to development of goiter and hypothyroidism due to feedback inhibition of thyroid hormone synthesis. Grave’s disease develops in response to an overactive thyroid and is not a condition associated with iodine toxicity.
The upper limit of safety established for iodine by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine is approximately 1,100 mcg daily for adults.
Dietary Sources
Although most foods do not contain iodine, one teaspoon of iodized salt consumed daily is more than sufficient to satisfy physiological requirements for this nutrient. Other dietary sources of iodine include drinking water, seafood (clams, lobster, oysters, sardines and ocean fish) and dairy products from feed additives as well as from disinfectants used on dairy farms. The iodine content of fruits and vegetables is dependent upon soil content.
July 8th, 2005
Manganese activates many enzymes and vitamins in your body. It also helps to neutralize poisons in your blood. It helps in the production of such vital hormones as insulin. Manganese also works as an antioxidant to keep your cellular membranes healthy.
Vitamin C cannot work correctly without manganese. Enzymes are needed to direct vitamin C to detoxify the body, fight infection, build collagen, or perform one of its many other functions. Manganese encourages the production of these enzymes, without which vitamin C could not function. In fact, a study done on animals given no manganese showed that when given hydralazine (poison), they died. When manganese was supplemented in the diet and the animals were administered hydralazine, they lived. It is believed to be due to the detoxifying effect of vitamin C, that can only be put to use when there is adequate manganese to activate it.
Manganese activates arginase, which also has a detoxifying function in the body. Ammonia is a substance naturally produced by your body. The only problem is 1/1000 of a milligram of the stuff in a quart of your blood will kill you! Arginase helps to bind ammonia and carbon dioxide to make urea, which is harmless. The urea is filtered out of your blood by the kidneys and excreted as urine.
The specialized beta cells in your pancreas need manganese to manufacture insulin. No manganese, no insulin. Insulin is what moves sugar from your bloodstream to your cells. If you don’t get enough manganese, you could get a blood sugar disorder, like diabetes. An observation done on 122 diabetics and an identical control group showed diabetics to be twice as low in manganese than those without the disease.
Manganese activates choline, a phospholipid produced in the liver. Activated choline and ATP form acetyl choline. This compound functions as a neurotransmitter and works in the energy producing Krebs cycle. It also stimulates adrenaline and noradrenaline to be released from the adrenal glands. These hormones help you deal with stress.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and needs manganese to be produced. Sufferers of Parkinson’s disease have a decreased ability to produce dopamine. Additional manganese may help decrease the effects of the disease.
July 8th, 2005
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